What is Instructional Design?
A set of order or activities that helpful for learning refers to instruction. These activities usually can be in form of stating ideas that helps learners to understand the subject better. Whereas design means the creation of a flow chart, instructional pattern, logical transition sequential feature or system rational consistency that could be used in achieving the specific objectives of a lesson by the instructor. These specific objectives could be a problem solving technique or construction of a new idea. Hence, combining the two words “Instruction” and “Design” can simply be referred to as a systematic approach or procedure of interpreting doctrines of learning and instruction. These could be in relation to organization of instructional materials and activities. Even though there are many instructional design theories and models, but we are going to discuss only the three main theories and models of Instructional design, which include:
- 1. Dick & Carey
- 2. R. M. Gagne’s Instructional Theory
- 3. ASSURE Model
The Dick and Carey Model
In order to identify the instructional goals Dick and Carey model explains all the phases of an iterative process. This model ends with summative evaluation. It is applicable in different areas which are mentioned in the following table:
Expertise Level | Novice | Expert |
Orientation | Descriptive | Prescriptive |
Knowledge Structure | Procedural | Declarative |
Purpose & Uses | Small Scale (Unit, Module, Lesson) | Large Scale (Course, Intruction) |
Theoretical Basis | Learning Theory | Analysis Functions |
Context | K-12 / Higher Education | Business / Government |
Sources: The Dick and Carey Model
Dick and Carey's model details a comprehensive and detailed process, however, it has been criticized for at the same time being too rigid and cumbersome for the average design process.
For instructional design Dick and Carry created a systematic process which they borrowed from behaviorist, cognitivist, and constructivist schools. Robert Gagne’s conditions of learning influenced them. This theory was proposed basing on the assumptions which are mentioned bellow:
- The relationship between instruction material-learning is similar to that of stimulus-response.
- The sub-skills that have to be mastered should be identified.
- Acquiring these sub-skills result in the intended behavior.
The methodology of their model suggests:
- Design instructions based on the reductionist model (breaking down into smaller components).
- Use appropriate conditions of learning.
- Use an Instructional System Design, a systems approach for designing instruction.
- Apply across a wide range: K12 – business – government and novice – expert
A methodical design and development process were outlined by Dick and Carey. A system, according to Dick and Carey, is technically a set of interrelated parts, all of which work together toward a defined goal. Dick and Carey model is called systems approach since it contains ingredients that are related to each other. Every component has an input and an output. For advocating a systems approach Dick and Carey listed the following reasons:
- The focus is on what the learner is required to achieve by end of the course.
- Every component in the system is linked carefully to the other.
- This process is empirical and replicable.
The Dick and Carey Model includes the process in the following:
The steps proposed in the ISD refer to a set of procedures and techniques that an instructional designer should employ to design, develop, evaluate, and revise instruction. The steps proposed by Dick and Carey in ISD are given below.
Identify the Instructional Goals. Instructional designers should identify what the learner should be able to do at the end of the course. The instructional goal is set based on needs assessment and learner requirements.
Conduct Instructional Analysis. The instructional steps and sub-steps that will help the learner achieve his/her goal is identified by Instructional designers. Instructional analysis also entails analyzing the skills, knowledge, and attitudes that the learners are required to possess to begin instruction. These are known as entry behaviors.
Analyze Learners and Contexts. While the instructional analysis is in progress is required to analyze learners and contexts in which they will learn. Learners’ prior skills, preferences, and attitudes are determined. Analyzing the instructional setting in which the new skills will be used is also crucial stage, since the instructional strategy is designed by information gained at this step.
Write Performance Objectives. The learning objectives are listed based in the instructional analysis, findings of entry behaviors and prior skills. While outlining the acquired objectives and skills, learning conditions and criteria for successful performance will be considered.
Develop Assessment Instruments. The assessments should develop based on the performance objectives by the instructional designers. These assessments will determine the learners’ progress through the course. The assessments are enclosed to convey the behavior described in the objectives.
Develop Instructional Strategy. There are four steps of the instructional strategy which are identified through the information in previous stages. These stages include pre-instructional activities, presentation of information, practice and feedback and testing and through activities.
Identify the Instructional Goals. Instructional designers should identify what the learner should be able to do at the end of the course. The instructional goal is set based on needs assessment and learner requirements.
Conduct Instructional Analysis. The instructional steps and sub-steps that will help the learner achieve his/her goal is identified by Instructional designers. Instructional analysis also entails analyzing the skills, knowledge, and attitudes that the learners are required to possess to begin instruction. These are known as entry behaviors.
Analyze Learners and Contexts. While the instructional analysis is in progress is required to analyze learners and contexts in which they will learn. Learners’ prior skills, preferences, and attitudes are determined. Analyzing the instructional setting in which the new skills will be used is also crucial stage, since the instructional strategy is designed by information gained at this step.
Write Performance Objectives. The learning objectives are listed based in the instructional analysis, findings of entry behaviors and prior skills. While outlining the acquired objectives and skills, learning conditions and criteria for successful performance will be considered.
Develop Assessment Instruments. The assessments should develop based on the performance objectives by the instructional designers. These assessments will determine the learners’ progress through the course. The assessments are enclosed to convey the behavior described in the objectives.
Develop Instructional Strategy. There are four steps of the instructional strategy which are identified through the information in previous stages. These stages include pre-instructional activities, presentation of information, practice and feedback and testing and through activities.
The strategy will be engaged to the current learning theories and research, content to be taught, learners’ characteristics, and medium through which instruction will be distributed.
Develop and Select Instructional Materials. The instruction is given through using learner manuals, tests, and instructional materials such as instructor’s guides, student modules, videotapes, computer-based multimedia formats, and web pages for distance learning. Original materials will be formed based on the content being taught, availability of existing relevant materials, and other resources available. Existing materials selections depends on a set of criteria.
Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction. The one-to-one evaluation, small-group evaluation, and field evaluation are conducted to improve instruction.
Revise Instruction. Modification of the instruction depends on the findings from formative evaluation. The problems in learning are related to the specific negative aspects or shortcomings in the instruction. Instructional analysis, assumptions about entry behaviors and learner profile is stressed again and the learning objective, assessments, and instructional strategy are modified.
Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation. Evaluation of the absolute value of the instruction takes stand following the revision of instruction.
Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction. The one-to-one evaluation, small-group evaluation, and field evaluation are conducted to improve instruction.
Revise Instruction. Modification of the instruction depends on the findings from formative evaluation. The problems in learning are related to the specific negative aspects or shortcomings in the instruction. Instructional analysis, assumptions about entry behaviors and learner profile is stressed again and the learning objective, assessments, and instructional strategy are modified.
Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation. Evaluation of the absolute value of the instruction takes stand following the revision of instruction.
Gagne's Theory
Robert Gagne's theory of instruction has offered a great number of valuable ideas to instructional designers, trainers, and teachers. According to Kevin Kruse (2006) Robert Gagne is considered to be the founder and contributor to the systematic approach to instructional design and training. Gagne and his followers focus on the outcomes – or behaviors – that result from training.
Gagne's instructional theory includes three major components. First, it is based on a taxonomy, or classification, of learning outcomes. Second, it proposes particular internal and external conditions necessary for achieving these learning outcomes. And third, it offers nine events of instruction, which serve as a template for developing and delivering a unit of instruction are illustrated below:
Instructional Event | Internal Mental Process |
1. Gain attention | Stimuli activates receptors |
2. Inform learners of objectives | Creates level of expectation for learning |
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning | Retrieval and activation of short-term memory |
4. Present the content | Selective perception of content |
5. Provide "learning guidance" | Semantic encoding for storage long-term memory |
6. Elicit performance (practice) | Responds to questions to enhance encoding and verification |
7. Provide feedback | Reinforcement and assessment of correct performance |
8. Assess performance | Retrieval and reinforcement of content as final evaluation |
9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job | Retrieval and generalization of learned skill to new situation |
ASSURE MODEL
The ASSURE model refers a six-step Instructional Systems Design (ISD). It is a procedural guide for the educators for planning and delivering their teaching which integrates both technology and media to achieve effective teaching in the classroom. ASSURE is a way to ensure the proper learning environment for students. ASSURE can be used in lesson plans in order to enhance teaching and learner’s learning while using technology. The ASSURE acronym stands for these important components:
Ø A- Analyze Learners
Ø S- State Objectives
Ø S- Select Instructional Methods, Media, and Materials
Ø U- Utilize Media and Materials
Ø R- Require Learner Participation
Ø E- Evaluate and Revise
The objectives of this ASSURE model is a approach to plan effective, media-rich lessons. It is notable that ASSURE is based on Robert Gagne’s “Events of Instruction.” The model is Constructivism-based. This is because it is a framework that assumes passive learners will not learn at their best and learners must be actively participating in their own learning, interacting with their environment and peers. ASSURE also recognizes the different learning styles of all students. Assure model which was originally developed by Heinich et al in the 1990′s, and is now popularly and widely-used in both classroom and e-learning environments.
